International Society of Genetic Genealogy (ISOGG; 2015), "Punctuated bursts in human male demography inferred from 1,244 worldwide Y-chromosome sequences", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Haplogroup_G-M201&oldid=1139571590, Articles with dead external links from January 2020, Articles with permanently dead external links, All articles with bare URLs for citations, Articles with bare URLs for citations from April 2022, Articles with spreadsheet file bare URLs for citations, Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles with self-published sources from October 2020, Articles with unsourced statements from November 2017, Articles with unsourced statements from September 2022, Articles with unsourced statements from July 2017, Wikipedia articles in need of updating from February 2021, All Wikipedia articles in need of updating, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, M201, PF2957, L116, L154, L204, L240, L269, L402, L520, L521, L522, L523, L605, L769, L770, L836, L837, M201, P257/U6, Page94/U17, U2, U3, U7, U12, U20, U21, U23, U33, Other males purported to be members of Haplogroup G include: German-American pioneer and soldier, This page was last edited on 15 February 2023, at 20:17. The emergence of Y-chromosome haplogroup J1e among Arabic-speaking populations. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. Thus, G2a3a-M406, along with other lineages, such as J2a3b1-M92 and J2a4h2-DYS445=616, may track the expansion of the Neolithic from Central/Mediterranean Anatolia to Greece/Italy and Iran. Sims LM, Garvey D, Ballantyne J : Improved resolution haplogroup G phylogeny in the Y chromosome, revealed by a set of newly characterized SNPs. We attempted to localize the potential geographic origin of . Cadenas AM, Zhivotovsky LA, Cavalli-Sforza LL, Underhill PA, Herrera RJ : Y-chromosome diversity characterizes the Gulf of Oman. Flores C, Maca-Meyer N, Gonzalez AM et al. Haak W, Balanovsky O, Sanchez JJ et al. Polarity and temporality of high-resolution y-chromosome distributions in India identify both indigenous and exogenous expansions and reveal minor genetic influence of Central Asian pastoralists. The identification of a new SNP can necessitate renaming of one or more categories. Ann Hum Genet 2008; 72: 205214. Google Scholar. Y-chromosomal diversity in Lebanon is structured by recent historical events. The Genetic Legacy of Paleolithic Homo sapiens sapiens in Extant Europeans: A Y Chromosome Perspective. You belong to a subgroup of haplogroup G (G-M201), The Caucasus Mountaineers, and your oldest. G-M201 is most commonly found among various ethnic groups of the Caucasus, but is also widely distributed at low frequencies among ethnic groups throughout Europe, South Asia, Central Asia, and North Africa. In the Americas, the percentage of haplogroup G corresponds to the numbers of persons from Old World countries who emigrated. It is a branch of haplogroup G (Y-DNA) (M201). The mutation involves a change from C to T.[citation needed] L223 is found on the Y chromosome at rs13304806. The formula for the coalescence calculations is as follows: Age=25/1000 ASD0/0.00069. In 2012, SNPs with the Z designation as first identified by citizen researchers from 1000 Genomes Project data began to appear. It encompasses a small group of Hispanic men who also so far all have the odd value of 13,21 at the YCA marker. (2000) suggested 17,000 years ago. Mitochondrial DNA and Y Chromosome Variation Provides Evidence for a Recent Common Ancestry between Native Americans and Indigenous Altaians. In human genetics, Haplogroup G-P303 ( G2a2b2a, [2] formerly G2a3b1) is a Y-chromosome haplogroup. Mol Biol Evol 2006; 23: 22682270. The coalescence age estimate of 9400 years for P16 coincides with the early Holocene (Supplementary Table S4). Using Y-STR data, the Td expansion time for all combined P15-affiliated chromosomes was estimated to be 150822217 years ago. The origin of haplogroup G is controversial. Beginning in 2008, additional G SNPs were identified at Family Tree DNA (L designations) and Ethnoancestry (S designations). The members of G-PF3359 are probably smaller in number than men included in G-P303, but only a small amount of testing has occurred for the relevant mutations. The reliability of both P16 and P18 in identifying everyone in each of these categories has been questioned and individual components of the SNP have to be examined. Considering these issues, we acknowledge that the variance of the age estimates may be underestimated. However, its sub-clades have more localized distribution with the U1-defined branch largely restricted to Near/Middle Eastern and the Caucasus, whereas L497 lineages essentially occur in Europe where they likely originated. For the multi-copy STR DYS389I,II the DYS389b value was DYS389I subtracted from DYS389II. Behar DM, Yunusbayev B, Metspalu M et al. The genetic heritage of the earliest settlers persists both in Indian tribal and caste populations. The G2 clade consists of one widespread but relatively infrequent collection of P287*, M377, M286 and M287 chromosomes versus a more abundant assemblage consisting of G2a-related P15*, P16 and M485-related lineages. Although progress has been recently made in resolving the haplogroup G phylogeny, a comprehensive survey of the geographic distribution patterns of the significant sub-clades of this haplogroup has not been conducted yet. It was then learned that several subclades belong under L223, including: G-L91 was identified in 2009. These five major sub-clades of the G2 branch show distinct distribution patterns over the whole area of their spread. Parent Branch: G-FGC5081 Descendant branch(s): G-Z17084 G-Z45043 FTDNA Tree Link: Link YFull Info. PLoS Biol 2010; 8: e1000536. Gurdeep Matharu Lall, Maarten H. D. Larmuseau, Mark A. Jobling, Hovhannes Sahakyan, Ashot Margaryan, Richard Villems, Javier Rodriguez Luis, Leire Palencia-Madrid, Rene J. Herrera, Sandra Oliveira, Alexander Hbner, Jorge Rocha, Alessandra Modi, Desislava Nesheva, David Caramelli, Maxat Zhabagin, Zhaxylyk Sabitov, Elena Balanovska, Veronika Csky, Dniel Gerber, Anna Szcsnyi-Nagy, European Journal of Human Genetics (This followed the publication of: Haplogroup K2b (M1221/P331/PF5911) is also known as Haplogroup MPS. The L91 mutation is found at 21327383 and rs35474563 on the Y-chromosome. Haplogroup G was the first branch of Haplogroup F outside of Africa. Y-chromosomal evidence of the cultural diffusion of agriculture in Southeast Europe. contracts here. In contrast to its widely dispersed sister clade defined by P303, hg G-M406 has a peak frequency in Cappadocia, Mediterranean Anatolia and Central Anatolia (67%) and it is not detected in most other regions with considerable P303 frequency. Haplogroup G, together with J2 clades, has been associated with the spread of agriculture, especially in the European context. https://doi.org/10.1038/ejhg.2012.86, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/ejhg.2012.86. Men who belong to this group but are negative for all its subclades represent a small number today. K-M2313*, which as yet has no phylogenetic name, has been documented in two living individuals, who have ethnic ties to India and South East Asia. Ann Hum Genet 2005; 69: 443454. . CAS Paleolithic Y-haplogroup heritage predominates in a Cretan highland plateau. Its identification caused considerable renaming of G categories. Similarly, G-P16 and G-M377 networks were created using 104 P16-derived 19-locus haplotypes and 61G-M377-derived 9-locus haplotypes, with both groups representing European, Near/Middle Eastern and central/west Asian populations. Categories have alternating letters and numbers. The presence of M527 in Provence, southern Italy and Ukraine may reflect subsequent Greek maritime Iron Age colonization events16 and perhaps, given its appearance among the Druze and Palestinians, even episodes associated with the enigmatic marauding Sea Peoples.42. The expansion time of G-M406 in Anatolia is 12800 years ago, which corresponds to climatic improvement at the beginning of the Holocene and the commencement of sedentary hunter-forager settlements at locations, such as Gobekli Tepi in Southeast Anatolia, thought to be critical for the domestication of crops (wheat and barley) that propelled the development of the Neolithic. Chiaroni J, King RJ, Myres NM et al. G2a3a-M406 has a modest presence in Thessaly and the Peloponnese (4%),10 areas of the initial Greek Neolithic settlements. No labs have yet assigned them shorthand names. G-P303*, also known as G2a2b2a* (previously G2a3b1*), and its subclades are now concentrated in southern Russia and the Caucasus, as well as, at lower levels, other parts of Europe and South West Asia, especially an area including Turkey, Iran and the Middle East where G2a2b2a may have originated. Pichler I, Fuchsberger C, Platzer C et al. Interestingly, the decrease of hg G frequency towards the eastern European populations inhabiting the area adjacent to NW Caucasus, such as southern Russians and Ukrainians,18, 40 is very rapid and the borderline very sharp, indicating that gene flow from the Caucasus in the northern direction has been negligible. [38][self-published source?] Hum Genet 2009; 126: 707717. In contrast, the only U1 representative in Europe is the G-M527 lineage whose distribution pattern is consistent with regions of Greek colonization. Although no basal G-M201* chromosomes were detected in our data set, the homeland of this haplogroup has been estimated to be somewhere nearby eastern Anatolia, Armenia or western Iran, the only areas characterized by the co-presence of deep basal branches as well as the occurrence of high sub-haplogroup diversity. G2a was found also in 20 out of 22 samples of ancient Y-DNA from Treilles, the type-site of a Late Neolithic group of farmers in the South of France, dated to about 5000 years ago. Am J Hum Genet 2004; 74: 10231034. The general frequency pattern of hg G overall (Figure 2a) shows that the spread of hg G extends over an area from southern Europe to the Near/Middle East and the Caucasus, but then decreases rapidly toward southern and Central Asia. In Russia, Ukraine and Central Asia, members of various ethnic minorities and/or residents in particular localities possess G-M201 at its highest levels in the world even though the average rate at the national level is about 1% or less. The DYS391 marker has mostly a value of 10, but sometimes 11, in G2a2b1 persons, and DYS392 is almost always 11. Interestingly, the L30 SNP, phylogenetically equivalent to M485, M547 and U8, was detected in an approximately 7000-year-old Neolithic specimen from Germany, although this ancient DNA sample was not resolved further to additional sub-clade levels.39. See more. G-L91 would seem to encompass a significant proportion of men belonging to G. L91 is found so far in scattered parts of Europe and North Africa and in Armenia. Also for P15* and L91 lineages Td estimates, DYS19 was excluded owing to duplications in these lineages.36. Ashkenazi Jewish G2a1a men with northeastern European ancestry form a distinct cluster based on STR marker values. G-M406* (G2a2b1*; previously G2a3a*) and its subclades seem most commonly found in Turkey and the coastal areas of the eastern Mediterranean where it can constitute up to 5% of all makes and 50% of haplogroup G samples. (a) Principal component analysis by population. Lacan M, Keyser C, Ricaut FX et al. Semino O, Passarino G, Oefner PJ et al. The National Geographic Society places haplogroup G origins in the Middle East 30,000 years ago and presumes that people carrying the haplogroup took part in the spread of the Neolithic Two scholarly papers have also suggested an origin in the Middle East, while differing on the date. An assessment of the Y-chromosome phylogeography-based proposal that the spread of G2a-L497 chromosomes originated from Central Europe could be achieved by typing this SNP in the Holocene period human remains from Germany31 as well as those from France and Spain.45, 46 Certainly, Y chromosome represents only a small part of human genome and any population-level interpretation of gene flow in this region would have to be supported by genome-wide evidence. Distribution. Pericic M, Lauc LB, Klaric IM, Janicijevic B, Rudan P : Review of croatian genetic heritage as revealed by mitochondrial DNA and Y chromosomal lineages. Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Because SNPs provide the most reliable method of categorization, each is allowed to represent an official G category. On the other hand, G2a3-M485-associated lineages, or more precisely its G2a3b-P303-derived branch, represent the most common assemblage, whereas the paraphyletic G2a3-M485* lineages display overall low occurrence in the Near/Middle East, Europe and the Caucasus. [44] The "U" SNPs were identified in 2006 but not published until 2009.[45]. [41] These classifications are based on shared SNP mutations. Finally, to the east, G2a3a-M406 has an expansion time of 8800 years ago in Iran, a time horizon that corresponds to the first Neolithic settlements of the Zagros Mountains of Iran. This is not surprising, as clines are not expected in cases of sharp changes in haplogroup frequency over a relatively small distance such as those observed for hg G, for instance between the Caucasus and Eastern Europe. [10], A skeleton found at the Neolithic cemetery known as Derenburg Meerenstieg II, in Saxony-Anhalt Germany, apparently belonged to G2a3 (G-S126) or a subclade. Am J Hum Genet 2006; 78: 202221. There were only a few G categories until 2008 when major revisions to categories were made. Dulik MC, Osipova LP, Schurr TG : Y-chromosome variation in Altaian Kazakhs reveals a common paternal gene pool for Kazakhs and the influence of Mongolian expansions. Here we address this issue with a phylogeographic overview of the distribution of informative G sub-clades from South/Mediterranean Europe, Near/Middle East, the Caucasus and Central/South Asia. Although compared with G1-M285, the phylogenetic level of P303 (Figure 1) is shallower but its geographic spread zone covers the whole hg G distribution area (Figure 2b). (b) Principal component analysis by hg G sub-clades: (A) M285, P20, P287, P15, L92 P16, M286, M485, P303, U1, L497, M527, M406, Page19, M287 and M377 sub-haplogroups with respect to total M201. The most recent study (2010) estimates the common ancestor of all men in haplogroup G lived in Asia about 17,000 years ago, and the ancestor of the G2 subgroup lived about 15,000 years ago. Article Karafet TM, Mendez FL, Meilerman MB, Underhill PA, Zegura SL, Hammer MF : New binary polymorphisms reshape and increase resolution of the human Y chromosomal haplogroup tree. The M201 SNP mutation that characterizes haplogroup G was identified at Stanford University and was first reported in 2001. Bosch E, Calafell F, Comas D, Oefner PJ, Underhill PA, Bertranpetit J : High-resolution analysis of human Y-chromosome variation shows a sharp discontinuity and limited gene flow between northwestern Africa and the Iberian Peninsula. For the human mtDNA haplogroup, see. The mutations involved may be complicated and difficult to interpret. The L141 mutation involves an insertion.[35]. Notably no basal G-M201*, Page94*(xM285, P287) chromosomes were detected in our data set. Semino O, Magri C, Benuzzi G et al. The identities of the specific 19 loci that define the STR haplotypes are reported in Supplementary Table S3 and Figure 4 legend. In other words, these mutations are so unique that they could only come from other cells with the same mutations. (Behar et al., 2012b) Origin Most researchers consider the birthplace of G to have been born in East Asia. Nat Commun 2012; 3. de Knijff P, Kayser M, Caglia A et al. P287 was identified at the University of Arizona and became widely known in late 2007. BMC Evol Biol 2011; 11: 69. Important caveats to consider include the fact that Td is sensitive to authentic rare outlier alleles and that multiple founders during population formation will inflate the age estimate of the event. The highest frequencies of haplogroup G appear in the Caucasus region; however it also shows significant frequencies in the Mediterranean areas and the Middle East [69,70]. Although both broadly distributed, G2a-P15* and its downstream L91 sub-lineage have low frequencies, with the exception of Sardinia and Corsica. Haplogroup H Cavalli-Sforza L, Menozzi P, Piazza A : The History and Geography of Human Genes. In the case of the general frequency pattern of hg G, panel (a) was obtained by applying the frequencies from Supplementary Table S1 together with data taken from the literature, concerning 569 individuals representing 7 populations comprising Algerians,47 Oromo and Amhara Ethiopians,48 and Berbers, Arabs and Saharawis from Morocco.49 Dots on the map (a) indicate the approximate locations of the sampled populations. The final major subclade is characterized by presence of the SNP Z1903 and by a value of 9 at marker DYS568. Excavating Y-chromosome haplotype strata in Anatolia. The extreme rarity of G-M377 in northern Pakistan could indicate that G2b in this area originates outside the region and was brought there in the historic period, perhaps from further west (Pakistan was part of both the Achaemenid Persian Empire, conquered by Alexander the Great, and then formed a part of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom). Am J Hum Genet 2012; 90: 573. G-M377, now also known as G2b1, has previously been designated G2b and G2c. Whatever the date or specific place of origin, part of the G family put down roots predominantly in the area south and east of the Caucasus mountains. The M527-defined sub-clade is unusual in that it reflects the presence of hg G-U1 that is otherwise rare in Europe. There are distinctive Ashkenazi Jewish and Kazakh subclades based on STR marker value combinations. Zhivotovsky LA, Underhill PA, Feldman MW : Difference between evolutionarily effective and germ line mutation rate due to stochastically varying haplogroup size. AAL thanks the Sorenson Molecular Genealogy Foundation. L141 persons who do not belong to any L141 subclade so far have the value of 11 at STR marker DYS490 a finding rare in other G categories. Samples from persons with British Isles, Sicilian and Turkish ancestry have been identified. The most recent study (2010) estimates the common ancestor of all men in haplogroup G lived in Asia about 17,000 years ago, and the ancestor of the G2 subgroup lived about 15,000 years ago. A more compact cluster of Near/Middle Eastern samples is also resolved in the network. [citation needed] Haplogroup G represents one of the first peoples in Europe. Digora, North Ossetia has the highest known concentration of G in a single city, as 74% of the tested men were G.[14] Haplogroup G is found as far east as northern China in small percentages where G can reach more substantial percentages in minority groups such as the Uyghurs. The authors declare no conflict of interest. This is likely due to a local founder effect.[40]. Am J Hum Genet 2001; 68: 10191029. JD and JC were supported by ANR program AFGHAPOP No BLAN07-9_222301. Summary. Moreover, the accuracy and validity of the evolutionary rate has been independently confirmed in several deep-rooted Hutterite pedigrees.34 Furthermore pedigree rate-based estimates cannot be substantiated, as they are often inconsistent with dateable archeological knowledge, for example, as clearly illustrated regarding the peopling of the Americas.35 Coalescent times based on 10 STR loci (DYS19, DYS388, DYS389I, DYS389b, DYS390, DYS391, DYS392, DYS393, DYS439, DYS461-TAGA counts) and the median haplotypes of specific hg G sub-haplogroups are presented in Supplementary Table S4. G-P16 is also occasionally present in Northeast Caucasus at lower frequencies (Supplementary Table S1), consistent with a previous report.3 Outside the Caucasus, hg G-P16 occurs at 1% frequency only in Anatolia, Armenia, Russia and Spain, while being essentially absent elsewhere. Int J Legal Med 1997; 110: 141149. Croat Med J 2005; 46: 502513. In addition, there are multiple other SNPs thought to have the same coverage as M201. MH and MHS are thankful to the National Institute for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Tehran, Iran, and the National Research Institute for Science policy, Tehran, Iran, for providing the samples. Use the Previous and Next buttons to navigate the slides or the slide controller buttons at the end to navigate through each slide. Circles represent microsatellite haplotypes, the areas of the circles and sectors are proportional to haplotype frequency (smallest circle corresponds to one individual) and the geographic area is indicated by color. Specifically, we intersected these criteria by applying the following filters. Haplogroup K2a (M2308) and its primary subclade K-M2313 were separated from Haplogroup NO (F549) in 2016. Another notable feature is its uneven distribution. The North Ossetians in the mid northern Caucasus area of Russia belong overwhelmingly to the G2a1 subclade based on available samples. G2a2b2a is also found in India. Age: About 7,800 years ago Origin: Eurasia Y-Haplotree. EKK thanks the Russian Academy of Sciences Program for Fundamental Research Biodiversity and dynamics of gene pools, the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation for state contracts P-325 and 02.740.11.07.01, and the Russian Foundation for Basic Research for grants 04-04-48678- and 07-04-01016-. The number of STR marker values separating men in this group suggest G-PF3359 is a relatively old group despite the small number of men involved. [15] Among the samples in the YHRD database from the southern Caucasus countries, 29% of the samples from Abazinia, 31% from Georgia, 2% from Azerbaijan and 18% from Armenia appear to be G samples. In Egypt, studies have provided information that pegs the G percentage there to be between 2% and 9%. The British samples have inconsistent double values for STR marker DYS19 in many cases. Science 2000; 290: 11551159. It is notable that tzi the 5300-year-old Alpine mummy was derived for the L91 SNP and his autosomal affinity was nearest to modern Sardinians.28, The G2a2-M286 lineage is very rare, so far detected only in some individuals in Anatolia and the South Caucasus. P15 was identified at the University of Arizona and became widely known by 2002. The genome-wide structure of the Jewish people. Semino O, Santachiara-Benerecetti AS, Falaschi F, Cavalli-Sforza LL, Underhill PA : Ethiopians and Khoisan share the deepest clades of the human Y-chromosome phylogeny. All G-M377 men tested so far also have a rare null value for the DYS425 marker, (a missing "T" allele of the DYS371 palindromic STR), the result of a RecLOH event, a finding not yet seen among most other G haplotypes. This group was created for the folks who's paternal Y-DNA reflects they belong to haplogroup G2a (G-P15). The origin of haplogroup G is controversial. The Caucasus as an asymmetric semipermeable barrier to ancient human migrations. A network analysis of representative hg G-P16 Y-STR haplotypes reveals a diffuse cluster (Supplementary Figure S2). Zalloua PA, Xue Y, Khalife J et al. Haplogroup P (P295) is also klnown as K2b2. The following SNPs are so far identified as M201 equivalents: L116, L154, L269, L294, L240, P257, L402, L520, L521, L522, L523, L605, Page 94, U2, U3, U6, U7, U12, U17, U20, U21, U23 and U33. P257 was first reported in 2008. Moreover, these general frequencies mostly consist of two notable lineages. Haplogroup K2b1 (P397/P399) is also known as Haplogroup MS, but has a broader and more complex internal structure. There are seeming pockets of unusual concentrations within Europe. Several G-PF3359 subclades, based on shared STR markers, probably exist. The oldest skeletons confirmed by ancient DNA testing as carrying haplogroup G2a were five found in the Avellaner cave burial site, near Les Planes d'Hostoles, in Catalonia, Spain and were dated by radiocarbon dating to about 5000 BCE. In human genetics, Haplogroup G (M201) is a Y-chromosome haplogroup. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2011; 108: 97889791. Phylogenetic relationships of studied binary markers within haplogroup G in wider context of M89-defined clade. Distribution. The second component, influenced by the relatively high presence of M377, separates Ashkenazi Jews from other populations (Figure 3a). [29][30][31] 3% of North African Berbers were found to be haplogroup G.[32] 2% of Arab Moroccans and 0.8% of Berber Moroccans were likewise found to be G.[33]. The G-L13 subclade is most common in north central Europe, and G-Z1266 is most common in the western Caucasus Mountains. (Previously the name Haplogroup S was assigned to K2b1a4. Men with the haplogroup G marker moved into Europe in Neolithic times. Almost all L141 men belong to L141 subclades. Hg G is very frequent in NW Caucasus and South Caucasus, covering about 45% of the paternal lineages in both regions2 in this study. Internet Explorer). G-M201 has also been found in Neolithic Anatolian sites such as Boncuklu dating back to 8300-7600 BCE, and Barcin dating back to 6419-6238 BCE. Eur J Hum Genet 2010; 18: 463470. Am J Hum Genet 2003; 72: 313332. In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles It is a child of haplogroup M12'G. It was likely born in the East Asia around 32,000 years ago. [7], (Subclades here conform to the Y-DNA SNP definitions used by ISOGG In 2012, several categories found only in one man in research studies were removed from the ISOGG tree causing some renaming. Iceman tzi, known to have been a haplogr. Until 2008, new G SNPs were reported from labs at the University of Arizona (P designations), Stanford University (M designations) or the University of Central Florida (U designations). G2a1a persons also typically have higher values for DYS385b, such as 16, 17 or 18, than seen in most G persons. [6], A more eastern origin has also been mentioned, believed by some to originate in an area close to the Himalayan foothills. The hg G2a3b1c-L497 sub-cluster, on the other hand, has so far been found essentially in European populations and therefore is probably autochthonous to Europe. In the Tirol (Tyrol) of western Austria, the percentage of G-M201 can reach 40% or more; perhaps the most famous example is the ancient remains of the so-called "Iceman", tzi. In addition, we introduce five new markers: M426, M461, M485, M527 and M547 (Supplementary Table S2). Eur J Hum Genet 2008; 16: 374386. Mol Biol Evol 2011; 28: 29052920. In order to determine if one of these alternative SNPs represents a subclade of M201, the alternative SNPs must be tested in G persons who are negative for the known subclades of G. There are only a tiny number of persons in such a category, and only a tiny number of persons have been tested for G equivalent SNPs other than M201. To accommodate for variability in sample sizes and hg G content, haplogroup diversity was calculated using the method of Nei37 only in the 52 instances when total population sample size exceeded 50 individuals and 5hg G chromosomes were observed. The 96 populations were collapsed into 50 regionally defined populations by excluding populations where the total G count was less than n=5.